Chile

Pre-Columbian remains have mostly been recovered in the north where they have been preserved by the dry, arid climate. The best known of these cultures are the Chinchorro who were nomadic and known for mummifying their dead. The Aymara practised agriculture including maize and potatoes in the canyons in the north. Other cultures include the Atacameño, El Molle, Tiwanaku and the Chango and there are various geoglyphs, rock etchings, tablets and ceramics that remain from these peoples. The Incas from the Cuzco valley in Peru conquered northern Chile for a time, but did not make it into the central and southern region.

The Americas were divided between Spain and Portugal in 1495 by the Treaty of Tordesillas which gave all territory west of Brazil to the Spanish. By the mid-16th century European power dominated the the area down as far as central Chile. A Spanish expedition led by Pedro de Valdivia reached the Mapocho Valley in 1541, subduing the local people and establishing the city of Santiago on February 12. Throughout the colonial period, indigenous people were exploited through the encomienda system, a administrative tool used throughout South America where Spaniards had the right to extract tribute and labour from the local population. The southern nomadic tribes continued to resist colonial rule and the south remained unsafe for settlers until the late 19th century. During this time many Spaniards were rewarded with large tracts of land. This small minority of wealthy landowners would have a lasting effect on Chile’s society and politics in later years.

American-born Spanish increasingly yearned for self-government and independence movements began to take shape by 1808-1810. Chile was classed as a subdivision of the Vice-royalty based in Lima, but its isolation meant it developed its own distinct culture to its northern neighbour. José de San Martín liberated Argentina, then crossing the Andes to do the same for Chile, occupying Santiago and appointing his second-in-command Bernardo O’Higgins as director of the new republic of Chile, before sailing on to Lima. Chile’s independence was formally declared in 1818.

Unlike some of its neighbouring fledgling nations, Chile managed to gain relative political stability and advancements in industry, agriculture and commerce. Winning the War of the Pacific (1879-84) was a significant boost for the country, fought between Chile, Peru and Bolivia over natural resources in the Atacama Desert. Chile seized the Bolivian port of Antofagasta and the Peruvian provinces of Arica and Tacna. This left Bolivia with no access to the Pacific Ocean and Chile with access to rich nitrate deposits providing a economic boom for the country.

Treaties with the Mapuche in 1881 also brought southern territories under Chilean control and Chile annexed Easter Island (also called Rapa Nui) to increase their presence in the Pacific.

The status quo of landowning oligarchs controlling the nation’s politics was challenged by a growing working class and nouveaux riches. President José Manuel Balmaceda, elected in 1886, attempted to correct the imbalance, improving schools and hospitals, but when the conservative congress voted him out, civil war ensued and more than 10,000 Chileans died before they were eventually defeated. In the early 20th century demand for nitrate fell and the Panama Canal was opened nearly eliminating traffic to Chile’s coastal ports and Chile’s economy suffered. Copper became Chile’s most important export and remains so to this day.

Attempting to correct the imbalance of power in the hands of landowners continued. At the time they had exclusive voting rights which they used to maintain their dominance. Democratic Leftist governments dominated for much of the 1930s and 40s. Ibáñez del Campo was elected president in 1952 and worked to reduce landowners’ control of their tenant farmers votes. Tension between right and left factions, including communist, socialist and radical groups, some of them violent, characterised politics of the 60s and 70s meanwhile reclaiming copper mines from the US, provoked US hostility.

On September 11, 1973 General Augusto Pinochet Ugarte overthrew the government in a bloody coup d’etat, claiming the presidency in 1974. He remained in power until 1989, virtually prohibiting political activity, killing and torturing his opponents. Around 35,000 are believed to have been tortured and 3000 disappeared during his presidency. He held a vote to extend his power in 1988 but was rejected by voters and civilian rule returned to Chile.